WUNRN
ARCTIC WOMEN & GIRLS
___________________________________________________________
With
Arctic summer sea ice rapidly disappearing, the native Inuit of Canada are
encountering not only unsettling changes in their subsistence way of life, but
also a growing number of outsiders who will further transform their
once-isolated homeland.
_______________________________________________________
Global Health Action. 2011
Published online 2011 September 22.
ARCTIC - CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS ON
HUMAN HEALTH IN A GENDER PERSPECTIVE: TRENDS IN ARCTIC RESEARCH
ABSTRACT
Background
Climate change and environmental pollution have become pressing concerns for the peoples in the Arctic region. Some researchers link climate change, transformations of living conditions and human health. A number of studies have also provided data on differentiating effects of climate change on women's and men's well-being and health.
Objective
To show how the issues of climate and environment change, human health and gender are addressed in current research in the Arctic. The main purpose of this article is not to give a full review but to draw attention to the gaps in knowledge and challenges in the Arctic research trends on climate change, human health and gender.
Methods
A broad literature search was undertaken using a variety of sources from natural, medical, social science and humanities. The focus was on the keywords.
Results
Despite the evidence provided by many researchers on differentiating effects of climate change on well-being and health of women and men, gender perspective remains of marginal interest in climate change, environmental and health studies. At the same time, social sciences and humanities, and gender studies in particular, show little interest towards climate change impacts on human health in the Arctic. As a result, we still observe the division of labour between disciplines, the disciplinary-bound pictures of human development in the Arctic and terminology confusion.
Conclusion
Efforts to bring in a gender perspective in the Arctic research
will be successful only when different disciplines would work together.
Multidisciplinary research is a way to challenge academic/disciplinary
homogeneity and their boundaries, to take advantage of the diversity of
approaches and methods in production of new integrated knowledge. Cooperation
and dialogue across disciplines will help to develop adequate indicators for
monitoring human health and elaborating efficient policies and strategies to
the benefit of both women and men in the Arctic.
Recent changes in the lives of the Arctic communities have had differnt
impacts on the lives of women and men; these include the rapid social changes
caused by welfare state policies, economic policies and urbanisation. More
recently, gender issues in the northern populations have been shaped by factors
such as climate change and environmental pollution, which have become pressing
concerns for the residents of the Arctic region. Several studies have shown
that the societies living in the Arctic, along with ‘traditional’ gender
inequality problems, are challenged with the new gender issues that are the
result of contemporary transformations in the life styles, living conditions
and well-being in the Arctic (1, 2).
Despite the formal recognition of the importance of gender
‘lenses’ for understanding the Arctic human development (2), some researchers argue that gender perspectives in the
Arctic research on climate change impacts on peoples’ health are very seldom
represented (3–7). This article shows how the
issues of climate and environment change, human health and gender are addressed
in current research in the Arctic. The main purpose of this article is not to
give a full review but to draw attention to the gaps in knowledge and
challenges in the Arctic research trends on climate change, human health and
gender.
Natural and medical
sciences on climate change, human health and gender in the Arctic
In recent upsurge of interest for an adequate scientific knowledge
about human development in the Arctic, an academic division of labour, the
legacy of Cartesian dualism, has left the material body to the natural and
medical sciences, with social sciences and humanities for the most part
occupied with intersections of individual and collective, autonomy and agency,
culture and the social (8). Relevant literature addressing climate impacts on human
health is dominated by natural and medical sciences.
The studies of climate change impacts on human health, as a
consequence of the division of labour, have often been split into a number of
areas. There are those whose concern is to point out the possible direct and
indirect consequences of climate and environment change for the health of
population in the North, e.g. the impacts of various forms of contamination,
thermal stress, ultraviolet radiation in the Arctic; the effects of
environmental changes on wildlife and their impacts on the food chain,
nutrition and dietary patterns; climate change effects on local environment and
their subsequent impact on the traditional lifestyles and human health in the
Arctic (9–17). This has become a very
powerful trend, which tries to establish links between climate and environment
change and human health in the Arctic. Others focus on health vulnerabilities
of women and men to the effects of climate change. The physical condition of
both women and men, especially of women, is connected to the health of their
children and, consequently, to the health of their communities (7, 18). Some studies have proven links between climate change,
changing living-conditions and negative health outcomes among Arctic population,
especially indigenous peoples, also indicating differences between men and
women (19–25). Climate change-driven transformations of living conditions
and the disruption of traditional lifestyles contribute to mental and social
stress associated with the loss of community and culture. Indirect effects of
climate change include changes in the environment and potential changes in
bacterial and viral diseases as well as access to quality water and food
sources (15, 17). Some studies also show
associations between mental and social stress, violence or sexual abuse and
current health problems, which are more common in women and children (7, 9).
Evidence-based research provides data showing that (a) the
effects of climate change are not gender neutral and (b) direct and indirect
impacts of climate change and health risks vary for women and men (26). Globally, women and men face different vulnerabilities due
to their different gender roles (26–28). Women form a disproportionately large share of the poor
all over the world and especially in developing countries. In southern
countries, women are more dependent than men (e.g. in agriculture) on primary
resources that are threatened by climate change because of their responsibility
to secure water, food and energy for cooking and heating (27, 28). As a result, women more often come in contact with
poor-quality water and are more vulnerable to water-related diseases; women
also bear the main burden of caring for those who are ill (26). Women are vulnerable to extreme weather effects in
particular ways before, during and after the extreme event: women's traditional
roles (looking after children and elderly) and cultural restrictions may hamper
their self-rescue efforts (28). Women's mortality, especially of elderly women, related to
heat waves is higher than the mortality of men (27). Being male or female has an impact on individual health since
the natural course of a disease may be different for women and men; individuals
may respond differently to illness and society may react differently to sick
women and men (26). Women may have less access to vital information on
mitigation or adaptation strategies because of time constraints due to the
caring and other domestic responsibilities. Still Preet et al find it as a
general tendency that gender perspective is hardly represented in the research
and policies on climate change and health (5).
Anyway, the point here is not to claim that gender perspectives
remain of marginal interest within the climate change studies or in the Arctic
research on climate change and human health. Rather, the point is to state that
we still continue to observe a disciplinary division of labour. When present in
studies, gender is often used as one of the variables in making the statistical
data rich. Very often gender paragraph is simply added to the overall picture
(see e.g. 22, 23). Of course, gender is but
one, albeit important, perspective alongside with other perspectives that are
important in climate change studies. Still gender is hardly ever a keyword
introducing the articles’ contents in the scientific journals, such as the
International Journal of Circumpolar Health, even when there are paragraphs or
sections on gender there. And the problem here is that medical and natural
science papers often operate with the category of ‘gender’ implying ‘women’ and
‘men’ as sexes, in a purely demographic sense (see e.g. 29–31). Within social sciences, and gender studies in particular,
the category of the category of gender has connotations of power misbalances
between and within men and women and consequent differences in their social
roles and positions. Gender approach towards climate change impacts on human
health would imply exploring, e.g. how gender power relations affect and are
involved into bigger contexts of climate and environment changes impacts on
human health; what dispositions are available to men and women; which
adaptation, resilience strategies are at the disposal of women and men; how
health risks, health rights and health security are perceived by women and men
and, in turn, how their awareness affects their situation and agency. In no way
the message here is that qualitative studies that operate with gender/sex as a
variable have little value and significance or that the discussions on power
should be a part of each paper mentioning women and men. Different research
projects have their own goals, research perspectives and tools. The criticism
here is mainly addressed to the traditionalism of the approaches in knowledge
production and the terminology confusion that arises from discipline
segregation. Human development is complex (2, 32) and in order to grasp this complexity, the diversity of
populations and their lifestyles, health risks and adaptation strategies we need
to develop more sophisticated tools via multi/transdisciplinary research. Yet
the blame cannot be entirely laid on climate change and health sciences, as I
would further show, social sciences and humanities likewise show little
interest in studying intersections of climate change impacts, human health and
gender.
Arctic research,
climate change and health in gender studies
Within social sciences and humanities it is acknowledged that
climate change has an impact on well-being of people in local communities (1, 2, 32, 33). Indigenous people, elderly, women and children are
considered particularly vulnerable groups in Arctic communities (4, 34). By focusing on cultural and social aspects of knowledge
production in/on the Arctic, a number of researchers point to the fact that the
Arctic has an image of a male world (6, 35, 36) or, what is more, of masculinity and whiteness (37, 38). Researchers explain this (re)presentation of the Arctic by
two major reasons. First, Arctic exploration was predominantly male-driven:
expeditions; search of natural resources; search for the Northwest passages;
fur-trading, whaling, hunting, mining and military activities were all
male-centred activities. Women quite recently entered this area as paid workers
(2). Second, most literature written on peoples of the
Arctic was written by men (mostly white) and mostly about men, transmitting
male values (35). The scientific language employed in the Arctic research is
marked by masculinism, nationalism and colonialism (37). Women's contribution to local communities’ survival, the
decision-making, hunting/fishing economy and spirituality of relations has been
underestimated (39–41). In Russian Pomor traditional culture, in Canada and
Greenland, we find evidence that women played a key role in household, family
and local community life; women were the ones who distributed food, organised
everyday routines, hold families together and raised strong leaders for their
communities (1, 2). As some scholars have mentioned, among the indigenous
populations, the Arctic was home for at least as many women as men. Dowsley et
al. provide examples when Inuit women have dominant economic and governmental
positions in their communities, territories and global political forums, and
yet social sciences focus on observations by male Inuit hunters (6).
Some scholars suggest that climate change affects women harder in
the south, while in the north it is men who experience the effects of climate
and environment change more dramatically (42). The disruption of traditional roles for men has been
identified in a number of studies as a reason for profound problems in male
identity and loss of men's self-esteem which, in turn, leads to a lot of
psycho-social disorders among men, including higher suicide rates and
alcoholism (1, 34, 43). Also, men's loss of identity and self-worth, societal tension
and issues of power and control have been identified in some studies as
contributing factors to increased violence against women and children,
increased human trafficking and prostitution (1, 2, 43).
Another effect of climate and environment change on well-being of
people in Arctic communities observed is a pattern of out-migration by young
adult females in a number of northern regions, including Alaska, Greenland, the
Faroe Islands, Iceland, Norway, Newfoundland and Russia (33, 34, 39, 44). Researchers point to education, marrying outsider men,
access to services, including health care services, employment opportunities
and search for security as the major reasons affecting women's decision to move
from small rural places and communities (2). Following consequences of female out-migration were
highlighted in the studies: the lack of reproduction in the communities
contributes to their stagnation. Development of ‘homosocial bachelor cultures’
as a result of men's need for sustaining certain aspects of masculine identity
is another feature (45). Ageing of population and increased poverty are also
possible consequences (33). In many parts of the Arctic, economic cutbacks by national
governments have often negative impact on small, rural and remote places,
reducing the standard of living and the quality of life in these areas through
limited employment opportunities, low wages and poor infrastructure and social
services. According to Hoogensen, this leads to increased feeling of insecurity
among women for their own future and the future of their children in the
current place of residence and becomes one of the factors forcing women to
migrate (45).
Thus, what social sciences and humanities mainly contribute with
is proving to the fact that the picture of human development in the Arctic
generally and the studies on climate and environment impacts on human health is
to be understood in the light of gender approach. A gender approach in this
respect contributes to knowledge building essential for human development of
the Arctic (2). What is more inspired by the traditions of
post-structuralism and post-colonialism, social sciences and humanities turned
their attention to the complexity of phenomena as well as concepts,
representations and interpretations used to describe them. To grasp the
complexity of human development in the Artic, analysis of intersections of
gender, ethnicity and of various processes that create differences between
people in the Arctic brings very important perspectives into both research and
policy agenda.
Multidisciplinary
approach to climate change, human health and gender in the Arctic
Though the research addressing intersections of human health,
climate change and gender is indeed scarce, there are some
multi/transdisciplinary studies where these intersections are explored. One can
mention, for example, the research carried out by Joanna Kafarowski on gendered
dimensions of environmental health and contaminants in Nunavik in Canada (3, 46, 47). Kafarowski studies the differences between women's and
men's perceptions of contaminants’ threat to human health and shows that men
and women not only have different perceptions of health risks but also develop
different adaptation strategies. She concludes that both gender and ethnicity
affect people's visions and are important for developing efficient
environmental health policies and strategies in response to the contaminants in
small native communities. Another example is Sandra Owens’ research on Inuit
indigenous women in Nain, Canada, and the ways indigenous people experience
climate change through their daily activities. In her study, she particularly
focuses on how indigenous women experience changes in the dietary patterns as a
constantly decreasing access to traditional foods as healthy and nutritious
ones (48). Women's access to decision-making processes is
seen as crucial when encompassing reproductive health, sexual health and
environmental justice (46, 49). Some researchers suggest, even though women develop
original solutions to complex environmental issues in the Arctic, they,
nevertheless, mostly advance the agenda at the grassroot level, within social
and environmental activism (2, 6). Beyond the grassroots level, women are less visible in
environmental politics. Men tend to assume positions of responsibility and
power in the public sphere and, therefore, it is likely that environmental
decision making itself is deeply gendered. The contributions of women are
valued less than the contributions of men in western, non-indigenous societies
and women are less likely to attain decision-making positions (39, 43, 44, 49).
What is of particular value with these studies is that they do
their research at intersections of gender, ethnicity and the variety of
processes that create differences in peoples’ health rights and climate justice
in the Artcic. The only limitation is that the studies linking climate and
health with gender and ethnicity, to our knowledge, mostly have been carried
out in Alaska and Arctic Canada. Climate change is one of many sources of
stress for communities in the Arctic. It affects people and their environment
with potential consequences for communities’ and individuals’ psychosocial
well-being and health (15–17). At the same time, ‘any
discussion of power relations and gender roles must also recognize the social
and cultural diversity across the circumpolar North and the fact that many
different perspectives can be applied when analyzing these roles’ (2:187).
Vulnerability of communities and individuals will vary depending on differences
in climate alterations, distances, infrastructure, resources, etc. Climate
change impacts on human health also vary between and within communities in the
Arctic, and the examinations of gender relations illustrate the complexity of
communities in the differences of perspectives that abound within and between
them.
Conclusion
Various academic disciplines within Arctic research provide data
showing that (a) climate change effects are not gender neutral and (b) direct
and indirect effects of climate change and health risks vary for women and men.
Gender perspectives on climate change and health is formally recognised as an
important field of research. The analysis, undertaken in this article,
illustrates that gender issues remain of marginal interest for environmental,
climate change and public health studies in the Arctic. Yet the blame cannot be
completely laid on climate change and health sciences as social sciences and
humanities have likewise often ignored gendered dimensions of climate change
impacts on human health. Or, rather, gender studies show little interest to
climate change and the Arctic population health issues. As a result of the
division of labour between disciplines, little dialogue is established
cross-disciplinary, which results in narrow use of concepts and the
disciplinary-bound pictures of human development in the Arctic.
The Arctic population health is an important dimension and an
indicator of monitoring human development. There are different starting points
for investigation of peoples’ lives and climate change effects on their health.
Awareness of differentiated climate and environment effects on health of women
and men has to be incorporated in knowledge production in order to understand
the processes taking place in the Arctic human development and to plan the
future strategies. Attempts to implement a gender perspective will be
successful only when different disciplines work together in multi/transdisciplinary
research. Transdisciplinarity is a way to challenge academic/disciplinary
homogeneity and their boundaries, to take advantage of the diversity of
approaches and methods in the production of new integrated knowledge. It is
also a way to escape reproduction of trivial approaches towards complex
phenomena and to develop new indicators for monitoring human health and
elaborating effective and adequate policies and strategies to the benefit of
both women and men in the Arctic.
Conflict of interest
and funding
The authors have not received any funding or benefits from
industry or elsewhere to conduct this study.
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