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Islamic Human Rights Commission - UK
UK - Report Reveals Muslim Women’s Thoughts on the Veil and Rise in
Discrimination Against Women
26 January 2006
Islamic
Human Rights Commission
Report Reveals Muslim Women’s Thoughts
on the Veil and Rise in Discrimination Against Women
'Hijab, Meaning,
Identity, Otherization and Politics: British Muslim Women'. A report by Saied R.
Ameli and Arzu Merali for the Islamic Human Rights Commission. Publication date:
26th of January 2006, 1-903718-26-0, 84 pp, £7
The report overviews and
critiques existing literature on the subject as well as policy. It reports on
the survey data of the nationwide survey of Muslims undertaken for the project
of 1200 respondents. Additionally, survey data from IHRC’s ‘Hijab Project’ that
interviewed 365 British women was analysed, as well as qualitative responses
used to interrogate these findings.
The results show that an overwhelming
81% of respondents see Hijab to be of importance. The experiences of increased
stereotyping and negative experiences of Muslim women by wider society and the
government and policy makers were noted as significantly increasing after 9/11.
Responses, from women questioned, undermine prevailing stereotypes of
Muslim women. Women often saw the adoption of Hijab as liberating and a means to
achieving gender equity in an increasingly gender exploitative wider society.
Many saw Hijab as the fulfillment of spiritual satisfaction, whilst others saw
it as a proud expression of identity that in no way conflicted with their sense
of Britishness.
One of the report’s authors, Arzu Merali
said:
“This report represents as challenge to academics and politicians
alike to reevaluate their judgments about Muslim women in the country. Many
policies are enacted and enforced upon Muslim women in the name of their help
and protection. It’s time that the powers that be realized that Muslim women
themselves need to set the agenda when it comes to their needs. They also need
to realize that by presuming to speak on their behalf, they simply marginalize
Muslim women further.”
Professor Scott Lucas of the Department of
American and Canadian Studies, University of Birmingham said:
“ This book
should not be the final word on the issue of the hijab – it does not seek to be.
Rather, in its presentation of the views of individuals who too often are
treated as inferior or threatening, it makes a contribution which should be
heard by all of us, Muslim or non-Muslim. If as one respondent argues, “British
society is an open and receptive one where multi-culturalism is concerned“, then
these voices in this volume deserve respect and acknowledgement”.
A
summary of the report follows. If you require further comment, a PDF review copy
or a hard copy for review, please contact the press office on (+44) 20 8904
4222, mobile (+44) 7958 607475 or email info@ihrc.org
Summary
'Hijab, Meaning, Identity, Otherization
and Politics: British Muslim Women'. A report by Saied R. Ameli, and Arzu Merali
for the Islamic Human Rights Commission. Publication date: 26th January 2006,
ISBN 1-903718-26-0, 84 pp, £7
Background
The fourth report in the
British Muslim Expectations of Government series has been commissioned to
highlight and identify Muslim responses and requirements. It aims to record the
main areas of concern in regards to Hijab. The wearing of Hijab has always been
controversial, especially in a post 9/11 climate which has seen Hijab bans in
both France and Turkey and the case of a British student, who was excluded from
school for wearing a jilbab (full length overcoat).
This report
particularly aims to voice the views of both men and women who recognize or
affiliate to the concept of Hijab and to present recommendations to the
government by analysing responses from a nationwide survey of 1200 Muslims,
qualitative answers of 56 Muslims and 365 quantitative questionnaires from
IHRC's 2003-2004 survey entitled the 'Hijab-Project'.
Research and
findings
The findings in the report negate the misconception that women
who wear Hijab out of choice and choose to affiliate to it, are disadvantaged.
Instead, it reveals the concept of Hijab to be an identity which individuals
have chosen to identify themselves by.
The Importance of Hijab
-
An overwhelming 81% of respondents state Hijab to be the most important or one
of the most important values.
- Before 9/11, 60.8% of women who wore
some form of Hijab experienced being talked down to or treated as if stupid.
This figure rose to 68.5% after 9/11.
- The majority in all levels of
education, except PhD assigned Hijab as one of the most important religious
values and for those with a PhD, the majority still believed it to be a very
important religious value.
The Meaning of the Hijab for Muslims in
Britain
Respondents saw Hijab to be a form of protection, identity,
religious obligation and a reminder to behave in a dignified manner when in
public. Other reasons cited were acting as ambassadors of Islam and as a form of
Da'wah (proselytism). Sporting Hijab was attributable to modesty and respect
according to some respondents. Both female and male respondents clarify that
Hijab is not merely a piece of cloth but a concept which applies to both genders
and symbolises the concept of modesty.
Hijab Values, Belief and
Spirituality
For the majority of female respondents, Hijab was worn for
spiritual reasons such as obedience to God. In addition, Hijab worn out of free
choice was considered a liberating experience.
Hijab and
identity
The majority of the respondents felt that Hijab was a way to
assert their Islamic identity and had been a positive experience, in contrast
with their negative experience of discrimination at work or the anti-Muslim
sentiment in social settings. However, this was overridden by the satisfaction
gained by wearing the Hijab; a coherent view of emphasizing Islamic identity,
through choice and intention, is recurrent in responses.
Otherization:
British Majority Society and British Muslims
Rife stereotypes of Hijab
remain encrusted in society and for the most part, blame is placed on the media,
however schools, government and the behaviour of other Muslims is also blamed,
which further emphasizes rampant stereotypical views.
There was a
decrease in those who had not experienced being made fun of or ridiculed for
being Muslim pre 9/11and an increase in such negative representation in a post
9/11 climate.
- Responses from Muslim women surveyed pre 9/11 and post
9/11 assert that there is an upsurge in Muslims being ridiculed:
-
Subsequent to 9/11, 59.9% of respondents said they had been made fun of or
ridiculed for being Muslim. Pre 9/11, 52.9% of respondents had never been
ridiculed.
-Hijab, nikaab and jilbab, as distinct Islamic dress,
generated differences in experience with those who did not dress in a visibly
Muslim manner.
- Regardless of respondents’ levels of affiliation to
Hijab, figures of perception of Islamophobia, in the media, were relatively
high, showing 62.4% of respondents believing the media's representation to be
Islamophobic.
- 14.5% of respondents, pre 9/11 had never encountered
negative or insulting stereotypes of Muslims, after 9/11 this figure dropped to
4.1%
- Of those who did encounter such stereotypes, there was a steep
rise from 9.6%, pre 9/11 to 29.9%, post 9/11.
- 32.3% of respondents had
never experienced being treated according to stereotype. This figure dropped to
18.9% after 9/11.
-23.3% of women surveyed, perceived themselves to be
frequently treated according to stereotype. This figure rose to 44% post 9/11,
from between once a month to more than once a week - a sharp rise of 21.1% -
which is almost double the former figure.
Hijab Society and Politics
Loyalty and Resistance
As with previous findings in this series,
respondents with high affiliation to Hijab have a strong sense of belonging to
Britain, running counter to the notion that obvious displays of religious
affiliation are equivalent to rejection of Britain or wider society.
Female respondents have shown a strong sense of belonging and willpower
to maintain their Hijab and their Muslimness, regardless of possible laws or
policies which could ban the Hijab.
The overall response from the
findings has been that most respondents find that the government disrespects
Muslims, a recurring notion in previous volumes in this series.
Subversion and the State
Of those surveyed, most considered
religious values, in this case the Hijab, to be a reason for respecting British
laws, as evident in the previous reports. Among respondents:
- Most
women surveyed in regards to their pre and post 9/11 experiences, saw a
significant increase in anti-Muslim comments from politicians. Pre 9/11, 28.2%
of respondents felt they had heard such remarks once a year, this figure falling
to 11.5% subsequent to 9/11.
Furthermore, 26.8% of respondents claimed
they had never heard any such remarks. This figure later fell to 12.6%.
-Post 9/11 24.7% of respondents claimed to hear such comments on a
monthly basis.
- A significant number of respondents made it clear that
they would not be willing to compromise on wearing Hijab if policies to ban it
were enforced, despite otherwise respecting the law of the
land.
Controlling, defining or negotiating sexuality?
Hijab has
been viewed as a mechanism, to control female sexuality, yet participants in
this study have stated the removal of both male and female sexuality in everyday
relations is necessary and therefore, they recognize Hijab to subvert the male
gaze and resist objectification. Egalitarian rights talk is emphasized by
respondents who feel sexuality should not be expressed in the public sphere. No
participants in the survey felt the conscious wearing of Hijab as oppressive in
any way, although problems were encountered, in terms of responses from family,
friends, peers and wider society.
Hijab and Territoriality
The
mistaken belief that Hijab is a practice of designating inferiority and gender
discrimination is overshadowed by male participants' responses. Male respondents
felt the concept of Hijab can be applied to both sexes. Although manifested in
different ways (men are not obliged to cover their heads but still need to dress
modestly), it was equally as important for both to observe Hijab. Hijab was seen
by some men as ensuring that women could participate in wider society and not be
sexually exploited.
What is the effect of wearing Hijab in the
UK?
Studies have shown British Muslims to feel a sense of belonging,
alongside that of rejection, which is demonstrated in experiences of wearing
Hijab in Britain.
-The events of 9/11 have seen the rise of
discrimination in the form of being ignored, overlooked stared at or moved away
from.
-Hostility at work was assessed showing a rise from 30.1%.which
reports an atmosphere of hostility at work before 9/11; a rise to
43.8%.
Some of the Muslim women surveyed also felt there was a glass
ceiling if and when they try to attain top ranking jobs.
-Some types of
hostility and discrimination are prevalent in respondents' everyday life
experiences and expectations so much so that their lives are made up of this for
example, in school settings, work, public transport and a variety of social
arenas.
What should the government do for Muslim women wearing
Hijab?
Allow and protect Hijab
To explicitly allow Hijab to be
worn and legislate to protect and support the Hijab
Stand equivocally
against Hijab bans
A call on the government to condemn Hijab bans in
various countries.
Educate the general public
Promote Hijab to
clear misconceptions
Normalise and mainstream Hijab
Incorporate
Hijab into work, leisure etc. (i.e. uniform)
Religious
Equality
Providing British Muslims with the same rights as their
non-Muslim British counterparts
Conclusion
A strong sense of
individualism and collective Muslim identity is visible, as findings have shown
that women are ready to stand up and object against Hijab bans. Unfortunately,
negative experiences have become the norm within the lives of some Muslim women,
therefore some cases of discrimination have come to be tolerated. Stereotyping,
characterized by media vilification and ridicule, effects the daily lives of
Muslim women in addition to the government and high profile political figures
who have committed similar failings.
Recommendations to the
Government
The report concludes with proposals for the government and
policy makers to consider.
As the majority of respondents feel that
discrimination and misconceptions are rife within society, the government must:
· Recognise - without reservation or hesitation - the religious rights
of Muslim Women
· Recognising diversity and the rights of Muslim
self-expression in Hijab
· Have a national policy in incorporating Hijab
into uniforms in both the education and the employment sector
· That
Hijab is not allowed to be a barrier to participation in sport or (other)
leisure activities
· Women only spaces in public places
· Talking
responsibly
· Showing solidarity with those who wear Hijab
abroad
· Marketing and mainstreaming the Hijab
· Tackling the
media
Methodology and Sample Group
In compiling this report, 1125
quantitative and 56 qualitative surveys were conducted, documented, analysed,
and presented. The quantitative questionnaire was part of a major survey carried
out by IHRC and reported in the last three volumes of the British Muslims’
Expectations of the Government series. Furthermore, data from IHRC’s, 2003-2004
‘Hijab Project’ consisting of quantitative questions from 365 women living in
the UK, was explored throughout.
In summary:
·Both the qualitative
and quantitative surveys were undertaken in various localities across England,
Wales and Scotland.
·The diversity of Muslim ethnicities was represented
across the survey.
·Respondents’ ages reflected the predominantly youthful
make-up of the British Muslim community.
·Approximately 90 percent of our
respondents are British citizens and 55 percent are born in Britain.
·The
majority of respondents saw themselves as practicing
Muslims.
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